2002 National prize winner in the JCPML special category - essay John Curtin: A journey from high school dropout to the leader of Australia through its darkest days

By Tom Cooper, Shore School, NSW

'He was one of the greatest of wartime statesmen, and the preservation of Australia from invasion will be his immemorial monument.' [1]

Having borne the enormous burden of World War II on behalf of his country, John Curtin, the Prime Minister of Australia, finally succumbed to the pressure and stress of leadership in wartime Australia and died at 4 p.m. on 5 July 1945, only weeks before the end of the war in the Pacific he had fought so hard to achieve.

Looking back, it seems John Curtin had been born to be a wartime leader. He was a man of great intellect, willpower and determination, giving Australia a total commitment that was shown ultimately by the sacrifice of his life for the survival of Australia. His confident leadership came at a time when this nation was facing its greatest crisis, fighting a global war, while at the same time facing threat of invasion by the Japanese. However, John Curtin was also a man of great passion and compassion. As former Prime Minister Bob Hawke has said :

'Curtin's tragedy was that he, so profoundly a man of peace, was called upon to lead the nation in war.' [2]

Despite this, his triumph was that he was able to guide Australia through its most difficult time. Not only did his leadership save Australia from invasion from the Japanese, but his Labor policies and ideals became the structural backbone for the development of the Australian way of life beyond his death. So, how did this man leave such a permanent impression on the Australian people and Australia. Curtin's impact on Australia came about through both Curtin's domestic policies at home and his foreign policies abroad with which he guided Australia during the war years.

Curtin was the Leader of the Opposition when on 3 September 1939, under the Pro-British Menzies Government, Australia declared war on Germany alongside its greatest ally, Britain. However, in August 1941, Liberal Party dissention forced Prime Minister Menzies to resign, and John Curtin became Prime Minister on 7 October 1941. This was just eight weeks before the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbour. Under the new leadership of John Curtin, Australian foreign and domestic policy took on a new direction. It was with this change in policy, ties with Britain loosened and policy began to centre on America and Asia.

Curtin's rise to Prime Minister had not been easy but his journey to that point had provided the necessary skills for him to be a Prime Minister. He left school at thirteen after his father became ill but, whilst struggling with the hardships of youth, he undertook a rigorous process of self-education. He succumbed to, but then overcame with great determination, a serious drinking problem. He maintained his faith in socialism and the Labor movement and united the different branches of the Labor movement. Through his early days editing a socialist newspaper, he developed analytical skills and a keen sense of advocacy. During World War I, he was a pacifist and vehemently opposed to conscription. He believed that war and violence could never be justified. With this mix of skills and experiences, and the burning desire to improve himself, the Labor Party, the Australian people and Australia, Curtin stood ready to commence the demanding journey of leading Australia in war.

Curtin's determination to forge a very different Australia was first seen in the way he responded to the tragedy of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. In an announcement to the Australian public on 26 December 1941, John Curtin stated,

'Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it quite clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom.'

Australia had always depended on another nation for support and that nation had traditionally always been Britain. However, with Britain fighting for its life and its Empire in the Far East falling Curtin was stating the obvious, that America was the only nation with the capacity to assist Australia. Curtin's statement was the beginning of Australia's shift in foreign policy with Britain and America. Curtin's journey on the international political stage had begun. Although both Prime Minister Churchill and President Roosevelt were displeased with his announcement believing it showed panic by Curtin in front of the advancing Japanese, this decision to turn to America for support proved, in the end, Curtin's most important foreign strategy and was vital to Australia's protection in the following years of war.

The next crisis which Curtin faced, and which led to a changing emphasis in foreign policy, involved the supposedly "impregnable" island of Singapore. Australia had always regarded the British naval base at Singapore as vital to Australia's security and as its front line of defence. However, by 15 February 1942, in face of the advancing Japanese, the British commander of Singapore surrendered. On 17 February 1942 John Curtin called the capitulation of Singapore "Australia's Dunkirk" stating :

'It will be recalled that the fall of Dunkirk initiated the battle for Britain. The fall of Singapore opens the battle for Australia.' [3]

Curtin's role as a leader was now being recognised. The editorial of the Hobart Mercury on 18 February 1942 stated :

'Australia, confronted with the alternatives of survival or extinction, now looks for her guide, and yesterday, in the ringing voice of John Curtin, she sensed a note of leadership.' [4]

One day later on 19 February 1942, Japanese bombers attacked Darwin killing 243 civilians. Allied power in the South Pacific began to crumble under the Japanese onslaught down through Asia towards Australia. With Allied defences north of Australia capitulating to the advancing Japanese, Australia's security was now directly threatened. It became obvious that Australia could no longer rely on British assistance.

Just when one thought it could not get worse, relations with Churchill soured. This arose when Churchill requested that Australian troops, who were returning to Australia from the North Africa campaign, be diverted to Burma to fight the Japanese advance in that country. However, with the fall of Singapore, sometimes called "Australia's Pearl Harbor", the bombing of Darwin, and Australia exposed to invasion, Curtin was anxious that the troops return home. He refused Churchill's request to divert the Australian troops. Curtin had previously expressed views about the position that Australia found itself in, isolated and vulnerable. On 27 December 1941, Curtin wrote an article for the Herald in Melbourne stating :

'We refuse to accept the dictum that the Pacific struggle must be treated as a subordinate segment of the general conflict. By that it is not meant any of the other theatres of war is of less importance than the Pacific, but that Australia asks for a concerted plan evoking the greatest strength at the democracies' disposal, determined upon hurling Japan back.' [5]

Curtin's political international journey was on a collision course with Churchill. Churchill sought to resist Curtin's requests for the Australian troops to return home, believing that if Australia was defeated by the Japanese, it could be won back once Germany had been defeated. This thinking made Curtin's task more difficult. However, he finally persuaded Churchill to allow the Australian troops to return home to protect Australia. History now clearly shows that Curtin's determination and forthrightness in this crisis was correct. Churchill's pro-Empire policy was misconceived and if the troops had been diverted to Burma, at least one division would have been lost and they would not have been able to come to the aid of the militia on the Kokoda Trail, leaving Australia open to invasion by the Japanese. Although Curtin's strong resolve on the issue loosened traditional ties with the British, his decision was in due course for the good of Australia and a step in his journey allowing for a more independent Australia.

In view of these circumstances, Curtin turned to America for help and support. Curtin foreshadowed this in a broadcast to America on 14 March 1942. In that broadcast, Curtin offered Australia as a position for a counter offensive against the Japanese :

'I speak from a united people to a united people, and my speech is aimed to serve all the people of the nations united in the struggle to save mankind...
Australia is the last bastion between the west coast of America and the Japanese. If Australia goes the Americas are wide open...
There will always be an Australian people. We are too strong in our hearts, our spirit is too high, the justice of our cause throbs too deeply in our being for that purpose to be overcome.' [6]

To get this support, he offered Australia as the base for the counter-offensive against Japan. In return, John Curtin was given American General Douglas MacArthur. Australia became the base for Allied command in the South West Pacific. There was criticism of Curtin for this act as Curtin allowed MacArthur to do as he pleased. However, Curtin needed help and he needed help quickly. Further, Curtin had no military experience (unlike Churchill). As has been observed :

'The relationship between MacArthur, the theatrical, ambitious deeply suspicious yet gifted showman and the principled rather aloof Curtin was an extraordinary one . conscious of his complete lack of military experience, Curtin rarely challenged MacArthur's judgment but was content to let the American general be the dominant member of the partnership in military matters .' [7]

However, whilst views on this may differ, there is no doubt that this change in foreign policy by Curtin was a turning point in Australian history, with the threat of attack lessening from then onwards with the Japanese advance halted and repulsed. "It was Curtin who - by standing up to Churchill and by demanding that MacArthur become supreme commander - turned a helpless and hopeless nation into one with the conviction for eventual victory". [8] By standing up to Churchill, Curtin ensured that Australia's interests were not overridden by Britain's. This decision marked an important stage in Curtin's transformation of Australia from a colony to an independent nation. It also ensured that Australia had enough resources to defend itself. In an article in The Sydney Morning Herald on 18 July 1942, it stated :

'Last election we waited his fate at the poll. He looked beaten. Thank God, we may all say fervently, he wasn't. For John Curtin has, since his (and our) critical hour become Australia articulate. He is a peaceful philosopher, as we are a peaceful people. We detest war as he does. It is an abhorrence. Our sons loathe it as we do. Suddenly however, John Curtin discovered that killing is no murder. His passion for peace took possession of him. He discovered that he could fight for peace.
With John Curtin, there is but one treasure; that treasure is the soul of mankind.
In every race, someone arises at its direst extremity, with the gift of the very best in that race. Sometimes he is a poet, but rarely. Today we are fortunate in having in him a Prime Minister.
Someone is always being prepared for a righteous cause as for an evil one. Australia, praise be, has given us John Curtin.' [9]

Curtin's journey also took a different path. His skills as a leader were not only demonstrated in his handling of Australian foreign policy, but also on the home front. As the threat of Japanese invasion increased, Curtin decided that Australia's resources should be focused on the war effort and he mobilised the nation for 'total war'. On the fall of Singapore, John Curtin said :

'Our honeymoon is finished. I demand that every Australian everywhere realises that Australia is now inside the fighting lines. It is now work or fight as we have never worked or fought before. There must not be a man or woman in this Commonwealth who goes to bed tonight without having related his period of wakefulness to the purpose of war.' [10]

The whole Australian economy was directed towards the war effort, involving the civilian population as never before. Industry concentrated almost entirely on war production, a full employment policy was applied, food and petrol rationing was introduced, men were conscripted for home service and women were recruited into the labour force and the recently formed women's service. Curtin placed government controls on all areas of the economy and under the National Security Act the government had power to control the human resources of the country. As he said bluntly, 'anybody in Australia can be called upon to do whatever the government wants'. [11] Curtin worked endlessly to unite the country under the cloud of war and the advancing Japanese. Whilst Curtin faced the grim realities of the war, on his journey he never forgot the need to look after his fellow Australians, remaining loyal to his Labor beliefs by bringing in unemployment and sickness benefits as well which dealt with continuing the improvement of society. These policies were important steps for the post war reconstruction of Australia and they remain at the base of Australian society today.

The introduction by Curtin of severe austerity measures - going without, wasting nothing, and living simply - although unpopular, became the theme for Australians. John Curtin and his wife led by example with their simple lifestyle giving other Australians someone to look to. Whilst there were other measures his Government introduced, including the Women's Land Army, all were for the purpose of allowing Australia to at first resist attack and then to further Australia's efforts to defeat the Japanese. In all this, Curtin's unswerving determination was paramount. He rose above petty internal squabbling and focused on real issues and real concerns. As in days before the war, he brought disparate groups together for one cause - Australia. In an article in the Sydney Sun on 3 June 1942, it stated :

'He has virtually suspended the capitalistic system in Australia without upsetting the social structure, and has put a proud, hard-battling Australian Army and Navy under foreign command. He has stopped strikes, yet still retains the confidence of Labor unions.' [12]

With this view, it was easy to see why the title of the article was 'Miracle Man Curtin'.

However, his journey also involved grave moral challenges. Beyond doubt, one of Curtin's most difficult decisions was to resolve whether or not to bring in conscription for the War. During World War I Curtin's pacifist views made him a vigorous opponent of the conscription issue. He had worked passionately against conscription and he was in jail for a brief spell because of his activities protesting against the issue. But he was no longer young and Australia was at war. Under pressure from General MacArthur to introduce conscription, Curtin's government changed the Defence Act in February 1943 which allowed militia and conscripts to serve in Australian territory and areas outside Australia up to the Equator. The Labor Party traditionally opposed the conscription for overseas service, but John Curtin, with great political skill, was able to persuade his Party to accept the need for conscription. Not that this was an easy task, with Curtin being attacked by his party colleagues and political opponents. [13] Nevertheless, with courage and with the knowledge that to ensure Australia's peace and safety this awful step had to be taken, he persuaded Australia that this course was the right course.

The burden of leadership and the strains of the war, where every death of an Australian was a bitter blow to Curtin, took their own toll and his journey ended abruptly. On his death in July 1945, The Sydney Morning Herald noted:

'He seemed to make everyone and everybody his personal responsibility. He always thought he had to answer to the country for everything - and everybody too.'

John Curtin, who worked tirelessly and unselfishly for peace, never saw it. He died six weeks before the surrender of Japan by its Emperor on 14 August 1945. How this man from such humble and tough beginnings left such an impression on Australia and its people and indeed world leaders, has prompted numerous writings over the years. Whilst sometimes described as detached and aloof, he was a man of and for the people. Arthur Fadden wrote: 'Curtin was a true man of the people, humble and unassuming.' [14] Fadden also stated:

'In passing over the reins to Curtin, I did so with the greatest confidence in his leadership ability I do not care who knows it but in my opinion there was no greater figure in Australia public life in my lifetime than Curtin.'

Even those people who opposed him respected him - Churchill remarked in his memoirs that he grew to admire Curtin - 'this eminent and striking Australian personality' [15] and regretted the impatience he had shown in the so-called "cable battles" of early 1942.

He was 'the right man in the right place at the right time'. [16] John Curtin is responsible for the democracy and peace that Australians now enjoys, the forging of the strong ties Australia now has with America and some of the social policies his Government introduced in relation to health, education, unemployment and sickness benefits which still influence Australian life today. His concern about the welfare of the nation was reflected in his actions. John Curtin hated war yet his passionate, all-consuming desire for peace made him a great wartime leader. An eloquent, powerful and gifted orator and writer, he inspired and enthused others, gathered support and boosted morale when needed, and fought with courage and fairness for what he believed was right for his country. In many ways, "a man for all seasons" as he guided Australia on its darkest journey.

Endnotes

Bibliography

Beazley, Kim E.
John Curtin - An Atypical Labor Leader
Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1972
A book that provided some insights into John Curtin's political life and comparisons with other Labor leaders.

Butler, Mark
Australia's Best Politicians
Cardigan Street Publishers, Victoria 1995
A source that, although brief, contained useful information about John Curtin's history, character and policies.

Curtin University of Technology
John Curtin - Prime Minister of Australia 1941-1945
www.curtin.edu.au/centre/jc/biography/ (version current 20 July 2002)
A brief summary of John Curtin's time as Prime Minister of Australia that was the basis of my study.

Dowsing, Irene
Curtin of Australia
Acacia Press Pty Ltd., Blackburn, Victoria, 1968
A detailed source that was only of limited use about John Curtin's wartime policies.

Fitz-Gerald, Marcus
Working together through the life and times of John Curtin
http://john.curtin.edu.au/education/nhchallenge1999.html (version current 20 July 2002)
An excellent essay which gave me ideas on what to base my research.

Lee, Norman E.
John Curtin - Saviour of Australia
Longman Cheshire Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, 1983
A very interesting and particularly useful source about John Curtin's role in the survival of Australia through World War II. It had many excerpts and interviews from people close to Curtin during the relevant period.

Mason, K. J.
Experience of Nationhood : Modern Australia since 1901 (4th Ed.)
McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd, New South Wales, 2002
A useful source on background information regarding John Curtin's character, especially in Chapter 5.